Terminalia catappa (India Almond)
Plant Family
Combretaceae
Binomial Name, Author
Terminalia catappa, L
Synonymous Binomial Names
Badamia comersoni Gaertn.
Buceras catappa Hitchc.
Juglans catappa Lour.
Phytolacca javanica Osbeck
Terminalia badamia Tul.
Terminalia dichotoma Miq.
Terminalia latifolia Blanco
Terminalia mauritana Blanco
Terminalia moluccana Lam.
Terminalia ovatifolia Nor.
Common (Vernacular) Names
India almond, sea almond, beach almond, country almond, false kamani, Malabar almond; kamani haole, kamani’ula, umbrella-tree (Hawai`i); almendro (Puerto Rico, Spanish); almond, West-Indian-almond (Virgin Islands); talisai (Guam, N. Marianas); miiche (Palau); kel (Yap); as (Truk); thipwopu (Pohnpei); srofaf (Kosrae); kotal (Marshalls); talie (Am. Samoa) [CTAHR 2003 et al.].
Plant Characteristics
For a detailed botanical description of this plant refer to the publication by CTAHR (2003).
Endemicity. Endemic to the East Indies and Oceania and now widely planted and naturalized around the world in the low elevations of tropical areas, particularly in sandy seashore environments. It was introduced in early Hawai`i, probably before 1800.
Growth Habit. Typically, a small to medium-sized tree from 9-15 m (30-50 ft tall) with large leathery leaves. The leaves may turn to a red color in the winter months.
 India Almond Tree – Terminalia catappa |
Flowers. The flowers are numerous and small, appearing on narrow racemes 5-15 cm (2-6 inches) long.
 Flowers of Terminalia catappa |
Fruit. The trees are prolific producers of seeds and these can remain viable in the fruits for long periods of time floating in seawater. The fruits are firm, fleshy almond-shaped drupes with rigid wings. When mature they are about 8 cm long. Initially, the seed husks are green becoming red and finally dark in color when fully ripe. This photo shows seeds with ripeness increasing from left to right.
 Ripening of Fruits of Terminalia catappa |
The soft tissues of the fully ripe fruit decay away on soil or in seawater revealing the corky, fibrous structure of the husk.
 India Almond with Eroded Husk |
Seeds. One or two small, cylindrical, almond-like seeds are encased in the fibrous husks of each fruit.
Conservation Status
This species is not threatened or endangered.
U.S. Endangered Species Act Listing Status: Not listed.
IUCN Listing: The last assessment of this species was conducted on December 31, 2018 and it was found to be of Least Concern (Thomson and Evans 2019).
Uses
This species has many uses:
Landscaping. India almond is an attractive, fast growing, hardy and salt tolerant tree widely planted on roadsides and in seashore areas. It is used as an ornamental for shade and production of nuts.
Medicinal Uses. The leaves of this plant have several different groups of bioactive compounds including carotenoids, flavonoids, phytosterols, saponins and tannins. These have many potential medicinal applications.
Plants in the genus Terminalia are among the most widely used plants for traditional medicine worldwide (Cock 2015). Numerous studies have now confirmed that materials from Terminalia catappa exhibit anti-cancer, anti-diabetic, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and hepatoprotective activities, which support its traditional medicinal uses (Anand, Divya and Kotti 2015).
Research in Progess. There is a very high level of medical research activity on this species. A search of PubMed conducted on January 17, 2024 yielded 2,074 citations. Review articles have been published and several of these are included in the references listed below.
Other Non-medicinal Uses
Food. The outer layer of the fruits is somewhat sour and can be eaten. The almond-like seeds are difficult to remove from the husks but when ripe they are edible raw or cooked. The seeds are also eaten by bats and crabs (GISD 2024).
Aquarium Fish Keeping. Aquarists use the leaves in aquariums to lower the pH and heavy-metal content of the water, control some parasites and bacterial pathogens, and may be useful in preventing fungus on the eggs of fish. Dried leaves and leaf powder and dried leaves are widely sold for these uses. No references to the use leaves in commercial aquaculture were found.
Ink. A black dye useable as ink can be extracted from the leaves, bark and fruits of the tree contain tannin and can be used for tanning.
Tanning. All parts of the tree contain tannin and can be used for tanning.
Seed oil. A useful oil can be extracted from the seeds.
Wood. Wood from the tree has many uses including boat building, construction, making furniture, flooring, boxes, posts and as a fuel.
Cultivation
This multi-use species is widely planted in tropical areas worldwide.
Cultivation in Hawai`i. Between 1928 and 1951 over 26,000 trees were planted by state foresters for reforestation on Kaua’i, O’ahu, Maui, and Hawai’i and they are now naturalized at least on Kaua’i, Maui, and Hawai’i (Wagner, Herbst and Somer 1999).
Propagation
India almonds trees are grown from seeds. The seeds can be started in the ground or in in potting media. Germination may take one to several months.
Improved Cultivars
We are not aware of any improved cultivars of this species.
Pests and Diseases
No significant pests or diseases have been observed on our specimens of this species. Occasionally some leaves show patterns of holes similar to those on other plants caused by adults of the Chinese rose beetle (Adoretus sinicus), which is a widely established pest in Hawai`i.
Listings of potential biocontrol agents for management of Terminalia catappa indicate that in other regions of the world beetles, grasshoppers, leaf rollers and leaf miners, and thrips may defoliate seedlings and trees, and they may host fruit flies that are serious pests (Morton 1985 cited in GISD 2024).
Invasiveness Potential
This species can become invasive. Its seeds are highly buoyant and can be disbursed by floodwaters and seawater over great distances, allowing the plants to invade coastal habitats and disturbed areas, potentially displacing native vegetation and altering coastal dynamics.
It should not be planted in Florida (IFAS 2024) where it is listed by the Florida Exotics Plants Council as a ‘Category II environmental weed’. This species has been reported to be invasive in the Haleakala National Park on Maui island, Hawai`i (Swearingen and Bargeron 2016), and several Carribean Islands, including Montserrat, Puerto Rico and the Cayman Islands (GISD 2023).
Despite its potential to be an invasive species it is still being considered for multiple applications, including mitigating the effects of climate change. Its system of extensive and deep roots favors its potential use in stabilizing sand dues against sea level rise (Chambers 2009 cited in) and may be used to produce biodiesels (dos Santos et al. cited in GISD 2023).
Conflicting invasiveness risk assessments for this species have been reported for Hawai`i. The Australian/New Zealand Weed Risk Assessment adapted for Hawai`i found the species to be low risk, with a score of 4 (PIER 2005). Based on what largely appears to be similar data and methodology, the Hawai‘i-Pacific Weed Risk Assessment assigned this species an assessment score of 8.0, indicating high risk (HWPRA 2023).
Plant Pono, a program promoting planting of noninvasive plants in Hawai`i uses the HWPRA risk assessments for establishing listings of low risk ‘Pono Plants’ and high risk plants not to be planted. Even though Terminalia catappa is ranked as high risk by the HWPRA it does not appear on the Plant Pono website list of plants not to be planted
As a Plant Pono Endorsed Business we do not sell plants in Hawai`i listed by Plant Pono as “No Grow” and are committed to promoting non-invasive plants to clients and customers. This species has many important current and emerging uses and there is little evidence that it is invasive except in coastal environments. We may grow some of these trees for our own purposes and sell limited numbers of excess plants. All purchasers will be advised that they should not be used for planting in seashore areas.
Plants and Seeds for Sale
Availability
Dried Leaves. In the near future we may offer dried leaves for use by aquarists.
Seeds. We do not offer seeds of this species for sale.
Nursery Stock. We offer potted trees of this species as Certified and Non-Certified Nursery Stock from our ONLINE STORE . These trees were grown from seeds obtained from the seashore area of Kailua-Kona, Hawai`i. As seed grown plants, they may vary significantly in growth rate and form.Shipping Information
Our Certified Nursery Stock of this species can be shipped to all states except California. Because it is not feasible to separate the growing media (soil) from the roots the potted trees will be heavy and require special packaging, resulting in potentially high shipping costs.
Our Non-Certified Nursery Stock is offered for local sales only on Hawai`i island.
References
Anand AV, Divya N, Kotti PP. 2015. An updated review of Terminalia catappa. Pharmacogn Rev. 2015 Jul-Dec;9(18):93-8. doi: 10.4103/0973-7847.162103.
Chitmanat C, Tongdonmuan K, Khanom P, Pachontis P, Nunsong W. 2005. Antiparasitic, antibacterial, and antifungal activities derived from a Terminalia catappa solution against some Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) pathogens. Acta Horticulturae. 678 (678): 179–182. doi:10.17660/ActaHortic.2005.678.25 [Accessed 17 January 2024].
CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora). Appendices I, II, and III valid from 25 November 2023. https://www.cites.org/eng/app/appendices.php [Accessed 16 January 2024].
Cock IE. The medicinal properties and phytochemistry of plants of the genus Terminalia (Combretaceae). Inflammopharmacology. 2015 Oct;23(5):203-29. doi: 10.1007/s10787-015-0246-z.
CTAHR (College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii at Manoa). 2003. Tropical-almond, false kamani. Common Forest Trees of Hawaii (Native and Introduced). https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/gsp/doc/Forestry/Little_Skolmen_CFT/CFT_Terminalia_catappa.pdf [Accessed 16 January 2024.].
Das G, Kim DY, Fan C, Gutiérrez-Grijalva EP, Heredia JB, Nissapatorn V, Mitsuwan W, Pereira ML, Nawaz M, Siyadatpanah A, Norouzi R, Sawicka B, Shin HS, Patra JK. 2020. Plants of the Genus Terminalia: An Insight on Its Biological Potentials, Pre-Clinical and Clinical Studies. Front Pharmacol. 2020 Oct 8;11:561248. doi: 10.3389/fphar.2020.561248.
GISD (Global Invasive Species Database). 2024. Species profile: Terminalia catappa. Downloaded from http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/speciesname/Terminalia+catappa on 18 January, 2024.
HPWRA (Hawaii-Pacific Weed Risk Assessment). 2023. Terminalia catappa L. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1aqrkI6RsD_9qRKewYA5jZtVAI5r_wXCg/view [Accessed 16 January 2024].
PIER (Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk). 2005. Terminalia catappa. Risk Assessment Results. http://www.hear.org/pier/wra/pacific/terminalia_catappa_htmlwra.htm [Accessed 17 January 2024].
Plant Pono. 2024. Don’t Plant These. https://plantpono.org/high-risk-plants/?sf_paged=18 [Search conducted 16 January 2024].
Swearingen JC, Bargeron C. 2016. Tropical almond. Invasive Plant Atlas of the United States. University of Georgia Center for Invasive Species and Ecosystem Health. http://www.invasiveplantatlas.org/.
Thomson L, Evans, B. 2019. Terminalia catappa. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T61989853A61989855. https://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-3.RLTS.T61989853A61989855.en.
Wagner, W.L., Herbst, D.R.& Sohmer, S.H. (1999). Manual of the flowering plants of Hawaii. Revised edition. University of Hawai͚i Press and Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI. [Cited in HWPRA 2024].
Zhang XR, Kaunda JS, Zhu HT, Wang D, Yang CR, Zhang YJ. 2019. The Genus Terminalia (Combretaceae): An Ethnopharmacological, Phytochemical and Pharmacological Review. Nat Prod Bioprospect. 2019 Dec;9(6):357-392. doi: 10.1007/s13659-019-00222-3. Epub 2019 Nov 6. PMID: 31696441; PMCID: PMC6872704.
Page Last updated 19 January 2024.