Research and Development of Dragon Fruit Cultivars for Hawai`i
Background
Dragon fruit, also referred to as pitaya, is the fruit of climbing cacti in the genus Selenicereus, formerly Hylocereus, mostly endemic to Central and South America. The fruit is very popular and there is increasing awareness of its many health and nutritional benefits. The lucrative price of the fruit and its byproducts, and its relative ease of production lead to its increasing importance as a crop throughout most of the tropical areas of the world. Here we will report on the progress of our research and provide a compilation of references relating to this research.
Dragon Fruit Cultivation in Hawai`i. The fruit can be grown in all the lower elevation areas of the Hawaiian islands and it has great potential for becoming an important crop here. However, the fruit of most varieties are only seasonably available, it is highly perishable and has a short shelf life. Exports of the fruit and cuttings for propagation from Hawai`i to the U.S. mainland are also prohibited by the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s plant quarantine regulations, which do not allow cactus plants or plant parts to be shipped there (USDA 2020). Imports of cuttings into Hawai`i are also regulated (Anonymous 2026). Fruit juice, frozen fruit products and other higher value products could be produced from dragon fruit and exported but the processing facilities and infrastructure to do this are not available.
 White dragon fruit, Selenicereus undatus |
Most dragon fruit varieties bloom at night and usually wilt down by morning. The beautiful flowers are edible.
 Flower of Naalehu White Dragon Fruit, Selenicereus undatus |
 Flower of Purple Haze Dragon Fruit |
Another impediment to growing dragon fruit is the lack of information on the performance on the various species and varieties in Hawai`i, particularly in xeric areas with new, highly pervious volcanic soils. These underutilized lands generally do not support many intensive agricultural activities but may be well suited for dragon fruit cultivation because of their lower cost and reduced requirements for controlling fast growing, highly invasive weeds present in areas with better soils.
Diseases of Dragon Fruit
Stem Canker Disease (SCD). As we began plantings of many different varieties of dragon fruit at our experimental farm site in Ocean View, many of the plants began to develop orange spots on their stems and some of these infections resulted in soft rot of the affected stems or loss of entire plants. The disease appeared to be dragon fruit stem canker disease (SCD). A specimen from an affected plant was submitted to the University of Hawai`i’s Agricultural Diagnostic Service (ADSC) in Hilo for diagnosis. The laboratory found the infection to be Neoscytalidium dimidiatum, the fungal pathogen that causes SCD. We immediately reported this to the Hawaii Department of Agriculture and Biosecurity (HDAB). There was no response.
Observations. The disease exhibits highly variable characteristics on our plants. Some species and varieties appear to be resistant. Others develop only small orange lesions while the infection rapidly progresses on others resulting in soft rot of single stems or whole plants.
 Canker Lesions on Natural Mystic Dragon Fruit Stem |
 Canker Lesions on White Dragon Fruit Stem |
 Severe Stem Canker on Rooted White Dragon Fruit Cutting |
 Stem Canker on Yellow Dragon Fruit, Selenicereus megalanthus |
 Stem Canker on Red Dragon Fruit Seedling |
Importance of SCD. The disease has caused devastating crop losses in Florida and other dragon fruit growing areas. The fungus that causes it is of worldwide distribution, and it affects many different crops.
Control strategies include pruning and sanitation in the winter and early spring, removal of affected plants and use of fungicides (Hong et al. 2023).
Fungicides. Only a few conventional fungicides and some organic fungicides have been registered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for control of SCD in Florida (Hong et al. 2023). These do not appear to be available in our area.
Risks to Human Health. The fungus that causes SCD in dragon fruit is also a human pathogen causing various dermatitides. One serious ocular infection (endophthalmitis) was reported in China. It resulted from a corneal scratch caused by an infected dragon fruit (Qi et al. 2025). Infections of other organ systems have occurred in immunocompromised individuals that may be particularly susceptible [Alamei et al. (2021) and Garinet et al. (2025)].
To minimize these risks, we recommend that those working with infected plants use appropriate personal protective equipment including goggles and disposable gloves. Tools and other equipment that will be reused should be disinfected after use.
Yellow Stem Rot (YSR). We have also observed a low incidence of what appears to be another rot disease of different morphology than SCD at our experimental farm. Unlike SCD, it does not begin with the small orange spots typical of SCD and it results in rapid yellowing, then browning and soft rot of whole stems. Its appearance is very similar to the disease reported in India caused by Lasiodiplodia species (Genesan et al. 2023). We have not been able to have specimens tested because of a recent closure of the ADSC laboratory.
 Early Stage Yellow Stem Rot on American Beauty Dragon Fruit |
 Late Stage Yellow Stem Rot on Lake Atitlan Dragon Fruit, Selenicereus polyrhizus |
White Spot Disease (WSD). In mid-March of 2026, our area if Hawai`i experienced multiple severe storms known as “Kona Lows” over a two-week period resulting in 20 inches of rain. After about one week of rainy conditions, we began to observe large, dense areas of fine white spots on the stems of several varieties of dragon fruit at our experimental farm. The spots initially were separated and soon merged to cover whole areas of the stems. The affected areas were mostly those facing upward where water would tend to collect. The appearance of the disease areas was not typical of SCD that usually begins with isolated orange spots. Its cause is unknown and the potential of acidic volcanic ash deposits from the recent eruptions of the Kilauea volcano causing or contributing to this condition cannot be ruled out. We have not been able to have specimens tested because of a recent closure of the ADSC laboratory. As of this writing in late March 2026, we are monitoring the progress of the disease and will provide updated information as it becomes available.
 White Spot Disease on Pink Dragon Fruit Plant |
 Close Up of White Spot Disease on Pink Dragon Fruit Stem |
 White Spot Disease on Purple Haze Dragon Fruit Stem |
Cactus Moth Confirmed as a Pest of Dragon Fruit in Hawai`i
Two fruits harvested from our farm in mid-August, 2026 of the variety “Neon Dragon” and another undetermined purple variety had holes near the bud end and were leaking juice. Cross sections of the fruit revealed the presence of frass and insect larvae identified as those of the South American cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum. A third fruit of a small, unidentified variety with white flesh had similar damage with extensive frass deposits but no larvae were recovered from it.
 Larva of Cactus Moth (Cactoblastis cactorum) in Purple Dragon Fruit |
 Frass and Damage to Dragon Fruit from Cactus Moth (Cactoblastis cactorum) |
We have been concerned that the cactus moth could become a significant pest of dragon fruit in Hawai`i and our observations may have been the first confirming this. On August 16, 2026, a report with photos of the larvae was submitted to the Hawaii pest reporting 643-PEST network operated by the State of Hawai`i (Rau 2026). Charles Chimiera of the Hawai`i Invasive Species Council replied with information indicating that this pest was previously observed on dragon fruit on Hawai`i island:
“Your concern that this may represent a significant host association in Hawaiʻi is supported by previous research. Galette, A. S. (2015), in Host range expansion of the Argentine cactus moth, Cactoblastis cactorum, onto dragon fruit, Hylocereus spp. (Master’s thesis, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University), reported that the insect had been observed attacking dragon fruit on commercial plantations on the main island of Hawaiʻi. Surveys conducted prior to 2012 found that four of six dragon fruit plantations surveyed were infested with C. cactorum (P. Conant, unpublished data). The thesis also notes that red dragon fruit was the poorest host among the varieties tested, despite red dragon fruit in Hawaiʻi being heavily attacked by C. cactorum. The author further states that Hawaiʻi dragon fruit growers were facing a threat from this destructive insect, while growers in south Florida were not experiencing comparable problems.”
In 2022 Hoshino et al. reported that the moth was a pest of two species of dragon fruit grown commercially in Brazil.
Most of the highest harvest period for dragon fruit passed as of mid-September. All harvested fruit was inspected, and cross sections of each variety have been made for other research purposes. Since our first observations of this pest in dragon fruit in August no additional affected fruit have been found.
Species and Varieties of Research Interest
The Selenicereus species listed below, and their interspecific hybrid cultivars were included in our research program as of March 2026:
S. costaricensis (red dragon fruit)
S. guatemalensis
S. megalanthus (yellow dragon fruit)
S. monacanthus
S. ocamponis
S. polyrhizus
S. setaceus
S. undatus (white dragon fruit)
S. validus
The varieties (cultivars) listed below are included in our research program, which is focused on self-pollinating varieties.
American Beauty (S. guatemalensis)
Black Africanus (S. ocamponis x S. megalanthus x S. spp?)
Bloody Mary (S. polyrihzus)
Connie Mayer (S. stenopterus x S. undatus)
Condor (S. guatemalensis)
Dark Star (S. guatemalensis x S. undatus)
Desert King (S. polyrhizus x S. megalanthus)
El Gruillo (S. ocamponis)
George’s Red (S. polyrhizus x S. undatus)
Golden Yellow (S. undatus)
Haley’s Comet (S. guatemalensis x S. undatus)
Hana (S. monacanthus)
Hawaiian Orange (S. megalanthus x S. polyrhizus)
Kona Pink
La Magdalena (S. megalanthus x S.undatus)
Lake Attitlan (S. polyrhizus)
Maui Dragon (S. undatus)
Naalehu White (S. undatus)
Natural Mystic (S. polyrhizus x S. undatus)
Neon Dragon (S. polyrhizus x S. spp)
Nicaragua Red (S. guatemalensis)
Orange Dwarf (S. megalanthus x S. polyrhizus?)
Pink (S. guatemalensis x S.undatus)
Purple
Purple Haze (S. guatemalensis x S.undatus)
Red (S. costaricensus)
Red Jiana (S. polyrhizus x S. undatus)
Thai dragon (S. undatus)
Voodoo Child (S. setaceus x S.guatemalensis)
Naalehu White (S. undatus)
Yellow (S. megalanthus)
As information on the performance of these species and varieties at our experimental farm becomes available their listings will appear here as active links. These will connect to the latest versions of the data sheets.
Research and Development Objectives
The primary research objectives of this project are to collect data on the performance and disease resistance of the various species and cultivars in Hawai`i and to investigate methods and fungicides for controlling dragon fruit stem canker and other diseases that are economical to use and compatible with organic certification requirements.
Data from this research will be used to select cultivars for propagation and distribution in Hawai`i.
Project Milestones and Completion Status
This project consists of several steps summarized here with their completion status. The dates are approximate.
1. Acquisition, Treatment and Rooting of Research Specimens
Progress Notes: In 2024 we acquired seeds and numerous unrooted cuttings of seven species and approximately 30 different varieties of dragon fruit, primarily from growers on the U.S. mainland. These were reinspected, treated with a copper-based fungicide, rooted in pots and observed at our certified research nursery at Discovery Harbour. Additional cuttings and seedlings of Kona pink, red, white, yellow dragon fruit were produced at the nursery.
Status: In late 2024 all the seedlings and rooted cuttings were treated again with the copper fungicide and moved to our experimental farm for planting.
2. Farm Planting
Growing Supports. Our experimental farm is surrounded by a six-foot-high chain link security fence. The fence posts were placed in holes filled with cement to ensure support against the strong winds in the area. Dragon fruit plants are also heavy, climbing plants and need a strong support system to grow on. We intended to use the fence and its posts for this purpose. There are also large areas of the farm site covered with basaltic lava rocks and rubble that are also suitable for growing dragon fruit. Examples of the potted plants are below:
 Potted Purple Haze Dragon Fruit Plant |
 Potted Purple Haze Dragon Fruit Plant |
Soil. Soil at the farms site is scant and volcanic consisting of fines from cinders and crushed a‘ā, a basaltic lava rock with rough, jagged surfaces. It has very low content of organic matter and extremely porous with low water retention ability. For planting holes and filling pots we use a manufactured soil media consisting of approximately equal volumes of volcanic cinders, fines and ground macadamia nut hulls. A dressing of shredded mulch from the municipal waste transfer station at Waiohinu is applied to the top of soil media of the potted plants and around the plants in the ground. Small rocks are then placed on top of the mulch to prevent it from blowing away and to reduce water evaporation. This method is based on the agricultural methods practiced by the early Hawaiians in this area of Hawai`i island.
Irrigation. New plantings of dragon fruit in pots were watered about every two weeks until they were rooted and showed signs of new growth. Thereafter, they received no irrigation.
Fertilizers. A dry, granular fertilizer with a N:P:K ratio of 15:15:15 (Gaviota Blend 1491, manufactured for BEI Hawaii, 311 Pacific Avenue, Honolulu, HI 96817), is applied to the soil around the plants about every two months. The nitrogenous component of the fertilizer his a slow-release formulation consisting of polymer coated urea. The fertilizer also supplies calcium, magnesium and sulfate.
Progress Notes: Large numbers of the common red, white and yellow varieties from our nursery were planted directly in the ground along the base of rock piles. The other varieties were planted in large plastic pots with painted on identification labels. They were located adjacent to fence posts to provide strong support for future growth.
Status: Within the first year after planting all the plants were growing and producing new stems. Some were lost to stem canker disease. Most of the stems growing near or through openings in the fence were chewed off. We learned that mouflon sheep (Ovis gmelina), an introduced ungulate species on Hawai`i island, and present in the area around our farm consider all varieties of dragon fruit to be a special treat!
3. Fungicide Formulation and Testing
Overview: Several different classes of fungicides for treatment of SCD have been developed or are the subject of current research (refer to references). Our intent is to develop and test fungicides that would be easily accessible and made from low cost ingredients that are not likely to require EPA registrations and compatible with organic certification requirements. Sodium salt has shown promise in controlling SCD (Riska et al. 2023) and would conform to our development criteria. This led us to develop a proprietary formulation based on inorganic salts.
Progress Notes: We are testing the proprietary fungicide and the use of a broad spectrum, EPA registered copper octanoate (copper soap) based fungicide (Bonide Captain Jack Fungicide) that is compatible with organic certification. The fungicides are applied when there is evidence of SCD or other diseases on the dragon fruit plants.
Status: There is insufficient data to access the effectiveness of the two fungicides. Preliminary observations indicate that our proprietary inorganic salt solution maybe be more effective than the copper-based fungicide. However, it is highly soluble in water and is probably washed off the plants by rain.
4. Observations
Overview: Observations of plant growth, bloom cycles, fruit production, and pest and diseases will be made and recorded at a minimum frequency of every three months or as staffing levels allow.
Progress Notes: Observations are ongoing.
Status: All the seedlings and cuttings planted have rooted and are producing new stems. Some plants, particularly those planted in the ground have been lost to SCD and replaced. Several have flowered and two varieties – Yellow and Robles Red have produced fruit. Most have not bloomed probably because of their immaturity.
5. Sales of Seedlings and Cuttings
Overview: We intend to become a primary supplier of dragon fruit seedlings and cuttings for Hawaiian growers.
Progress Notes: For the last several years we have been the only supplier of organic, seed grown dragon fruit plants on Hawai`i island. These were of the white, yellow, red and Kona Pink varieties. These are in strong consumer demand but are costly and slow to produce from seeds.
 Organic Seedling of Red Dragon Fruit |
 Organic White Dragon Fruit Seedling, Selenicereus undatus |
 Organic Seedling of Yellow Dragon Fruit, Selenicereus megalanthus |
Preliminary Research Findings
Observations on the growth of the plants, their pests and diseases, and fruit yield are ongoing. As of fall 2026 we have made enough observations to begin preparation of data sheets on the performance of the various species and varieties and make preliminary recommendations on selections. These are all subject to change as our research continues and more observations are made.
Data Sheets
We have primarily selected species and varieties for our research providing the widest genetic diversity and mostly self-fertile varieties that should not require hand pollination.
Data sheets on each species and variety of dragon fruit that we have in cultivation are being prepared. Links to these will be added to their listings on this page, the plant information sections of the website, and in our ONLINE STORE. The initial versions of the data sheets may have incomplete data fields and the data presented will be based on observations of a small number of plants in the first years of production. It will be updated as more observations are made.
The General Information section of each data sheet will only contain the data elements most relevant to our research. This information will be summarized from outside sources listed in the reference section below. There are many more varieties in cultivation and voluminous information is available about many of these from other sources.
The Hawaiian Crop Observations section of the data sheets will present information from our observations of plants in cultivation at the Moana Experimental Farm located at Hawaiian Ocean View, in the Kau District of Hawai`i island.
Terms Used on Data Sheets
Brix Level (Sweetness)
Brix, or degrees Brix (°Bx), is a measure of the amount sugar (sucrose) in dragon fruit. One degree Brix is 1 gram of sucrose in 100 grams of juice. To measure the brix of dragon fruit a small sample of juice is extracted from the center of the fruit, which is usually the sweetest part. A refractometer is used to determine the brix level.
The sweetness of dragon fruit is determined by several factors including its variety, the season its ripeness and the dryness of the growing area. With some exceptions, the typical brix ranges of dragon fruit are:
Red-fleshed: 12-13
White-fleshed: 13-15
Yellow outside: 2 -3 times higher than red-fleshed
Pollination
The ability of the plant flowers to be pollinated is a major factor in selection of the species and varieties to be planted. With the high cost and limited availability of labor in Hawai`i it is probably not feasible to grow self-sterile plants that require hand pollination. Self-sterile varieties may not require hand pollination if other varieties that can serve as pollinators are grown near the self-sterile varieties. Terms relating to this are defined here:
Self-fertile – Plants typically with short stigmas than can pollinate themselves. Wind, bats, moths and other nocturnal insects can usually pollinate the plants without human intervention. Bees may be pollinators for cultivars with flowers open in the morning.
Self-sterile – Plants typically with long stigmas that may require cross pollination with a different plant. These may require hand pollination to produce fruit.
Undetermined – Data on fertility is not available.
The pollination data shown on our data sheets is from outside references. We cannot determine if plants are self-fertile or self-sterile because plants of many species and varieties may be blooming at the same time on our farm site. Plants that bloom but do not set fruit will be identified on the data sheets.
Canker Resistance Levels
Complete – Canker has not been observed on plants in cultivation.
High – Canker rarely observed, confined to small lesions that tend to self-heal. Plants do not succumb to the disease.
Moderate – A minority of plants are infected. Some plants may recover without treatment. Plants treated with investigational fungicides usually recover.
Low. A majority of plants are infected. Diseased areas may spread rapidly on and between infected plants. Infections may recur even with frequent applications of investigational fungicides. Untreated plants may succumb to the disease.
Fruit Weight Data
As our plants begin to produce there will be small amounts of fruit for each variety. For most varieties the initial weight data presented will be based on small numbers of fruit, sometimes on a single specimen. The data will be updated as more fruit are harvested. Many of the fruit produced so far appear to have lower weights than have been reported for the same varieties by other growers. This may reflect the young age of the plants at our farm or growing conditions at the site that result in smaller fruit size than those found at other growing areas.
Preliminary Recommendations
Based on the observations and data collected to date the best performing species and varieties are:
Naalehu White (Selenicereus undatatus) – Most productive white fleshed variety with the largest fruit of all varieties tested. Moderate resistance to canker. Some stems may be affected and lost to rot, but whole plants are rarely affected. Plants usually recover without treatment. Note: in previous listings this variety was referred to simply as “White”. The parental stock was obtained from a local nursery about ten years ago. We are applying the new varietal name to these since then many of the plants we have in cultivation were grown from seeds produced from the fruit of the original plants, may be crosses with other plants and are now locally adapted.
Purple (Selenicereus guatemalensis ?) – Most productive of the purple varieties that we have grown with the largest fruit. Some plants have twisted stems. Canker resistance is highly variable among the many plants in cultivation. Some develop the disease and the entire plant is lost to rot, while adjacent plants are not affected.
Thai Dragon (Selenicereus undatatus) – Variety with performance similar to Naalehu White but with somewhat smaller fruit. Moderate resistance to canker. Some stems may be affected and lost to rot, but whole plants are rarely affected. Plants usually recover without treatment.
Yellow (Selenicereus megalanthus) – Fruit is probably the sweetest and juiciest of the various species and in high demand. Sharp thorns come off easily and must be removed before handling. Multiple bloom cycles and harvests may occur throughout the year. Plants have good productivity and moderate resistance to canker. Some stems may be affected and lost to rot, but whole plants are rarely affected. Plants usually recover without treatment.
Hawaiian Orange (Selenicereus megalanthus x S. polyrhizus) – Fruit is similar in size, shape and yield to yellow dragon fruit, but the peel is orange and the flesh is red or magenta. Several people in our area have said this is the best tasting variety that we have grown with good sweetness and a complex citrusy flavor. It has moderate resistance to canker. Some stems may be affected and lost to rot, but whole plants are rarely affected. Plants usually recover without treatment. Note: seedlings of the dwarf orange variety have shown very low resistance to canker and cannot be grown outdoors in our area.
We hope that this information will be helpful to all growers. It should be particularly useful to those selecting varieties for growing in Hawai`i.
Availability of Dragon Fruit Products for Sale
Unrooted cuttings of most of the varieties grow on our farm are available for sale to growers in Hawai`i through our ONLINE STORE. Fresh fruit, rooted cuttings and a limited selection of seedlings may be offered for sale in retail outlets on Hawai`i island. Please CONTACT US for further information.
References
REVIEW ARTICLES
Chen, S. Y., Xu, C. Y., Mazhar, M. S., & Naiker, M. (2024). Nutritional Value and Therapeutic Benefits of Dragon Fruit: A Comprehensive Review with Implications for Establishing Australian Industry Standards. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 29(23), 5676. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules29235676
Nishikito, D. F., Borges, A. C. A., Laurindo, L. F., Otoboni, A. M. M. B., Direito, R., Goulart, R. A., Nicolau, C. C. T., Fiorini, A. M. R., Sinatora, R. V., & Barbalho, S. M. (2023). Anti-Inflammatory, Antioxidant, and Other Health Effects of Dragon Fruit and Potential Delivery Systems for Its Bioactive Compounds. Pharmaceutics, 15(1), 159. https://doi.org/10.3390/pharmaceutics15010159
Shah, K., Chen, J., Chen, J., & Qin, Y. (2023). Pitaya Nutrition, Biology, and Biotechnology: A Review. International journal of molecular sciences, 24(18), 13986. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms241813986
CULTIVAR (VARIETY) SELECTION
Anonymous. 2024. Spicy Exotics. https://spicyexotics.com/
Anonymous. 2024. Pitaya Species and Named Varieties. Growables. https://www.growables.org/information/TropicalFruit/PitayaSpeciesVarieties.htm Accessed 21 November 2024.
Crane, Johathan H., et al. “Pitaya Growing in the Florida Home Landscape.” Horticultural Sciences Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, HS1068, Original Pub. Nov. 2005, Revised Nov. 2016, and Dec. 2019, AskIFAS, https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/HS303 . Accessed 21 November 2024.
Leewi Farms. 2026. Over 450 Dragon Fruit Dragon Fruit Varieties at Leewi Farms! https://www.leewifarms.com/ Accessed September 25, 2026.
Schiffermuller M. 2024. Dragon Fruit Glossary and Anatomy. Dragon Fruit Co. https://raredragonfruit.com.au/blogs/news/dragon-fruit-glossary#:~:text=Brix%20measurement%20(or%20Brix%20scale,the%20sweetness%20of%20a%20variety. Accessed 21 November 2024.
Sky Botanicals. 2026. Dragon Fruit Varieties: Complete Guide to 50+ Cultivars. Sky Botanicals. https://sky-botanicals.com/blog/dragon-fruit-varieties-guide Accessed 25September 2026.
Tasty, R. 2025. 200+ Dragon Fruit Varieties with Characteristics. https://www.tastydragons.com/post/200-dragon-fruit-varieties-their-characteristics Accessed 5 September 2026.
Tasty Dragons. 2025. 200+ Dragon Fruit Varieties with Characteristics. https://www.tastydragons.com/post/200-dragon-fruit-varieties-their-characteristics Accessed 25 September 2026.
Tendra. 2026. Dragon Fruit Explorer. https://tendra-app.com/dragonfruit Accessed 25 September 2026.
Tendra. 2026. Dragon Fruit Grown Stats. https://tendra-app.com/dragonfruit/stats Accessed 26 September 2026.
UCCE (University of California Cooperative Extension). (2026). Pitahaya or Dragon Fruit Variety Evaluation Chart. https://ucanr.edu/sites/default/files/2017-11/274664.pdf Accessed March 23, 2026.
Valero, D., Erazo-Lara, A., García-Pastor, M. E., Padilla-González, P. A., Agulló, V., El-Hiali, F. B., & Serrano, M. (2025). Yellow Pitahaya (Selenicereus megalanthus Haw.): The Less Known of the Pitahayas. Foods (Basel, Switzerland), 14(2), 202. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods14020202
Yasmin, A., Sumi, M. J., Akter, K., Rabbi, R. H. M., Almoallim, H. S., Ansari, M. J., Hossain, A., & Imran, S. (2024). Comparative analysis of nutrient composition and antioxidant activity in three dragon fruit cultivars. PeerJ, 12, e17719. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.17719
DISEASE DIAGNOSIS AND CONTROL
Detection and Diagnostic Methods
Li, R., Li, X., Tang, J., Xie, C., & Wang, J. (2024). The Development of a Fluorescent Microsatellite Marker Assay for the Pitaya Canker Pathogen (Neoscytalidium dimidiatum). Genes, 15(7), 885. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes15070885
Huang, L., Chen, M., & Peng, Z. (2024). YOLOv8-G: An Improved YOLOv8 Model for Major Disease Detection in Dragon Fruit Stems. Sensors (Basel, Switzerland), 24(15), 5034. https://doi.org/10.3390/s24155034
Sarkar, P. C., Pranta, G. K., Mojumdar, M. U., Mahmud, A., Noori, S. R. H., & Chakraborty, N. R. (2025). UDCAD-DFL-DL: A unique dataset for classifying and detecting agricultural diseases in dragon fruits and leaves. Data in brief, 59, 111411. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2025.111411
Fungicides
Lin, S., Chen, X., Xie, L., Zhang, Y., Zeng, F., Long, Y., Ren, L., Qi, X., & Wei, J. (2023). Biocontrol potential of lipopeptides produced by Paenibacillus polymyxa AF01 against Neoscytalidium dimidiatum in pitaya. Frontiers in microbiology, 14, 1188722. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1188722
Lin, S., Chen, X., Xie, L., Zhang, Y., Zeng, F., Long, Y., Ren, L., Qi, X., & Wei, J. (2023). Biocontrol potential of lipopeptides produced by Paenibacillus polymyxa AF01 against Neoscytalidium dimidiatum in pitaya. Frontiers in microbiology, 14, 1188722. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2023.1188722
Ratanaprom, S., Nakkanong, K., Nualsri, C., Jiwanit, P., Rongsawat, T., & Woraathakorn, N. (2021). Overcoming Encouragement of Dragon Fruit Plant (Hylocereus undatus) against Stem Brown Spot Disease Caused by Neoscytalidium dimidiatum Using Bacillus subtilis Combined with Sodium Bicarbonate. The plant pathology journal, 37(3), 205–214. https://doi.org/10.5423/PPJ.OA.01.2021.0007
Riska, R., Jumjunidang, J., Budiyanti, T., Husada, E.D., Indriyani, N.U.P.,i Hadiati, S. Muas, I., Mansyah, E. (2023). Stem canker of dragon fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus): Neocytalidium sp. is the new cause of the disease and its control using the sodium salt. Plant Protection Science. 59. 245-255. DOI:10.17221/112/2022-PPS.
Taguiam, J.D., Evallo, E., Bengoa, J. et al. Susceptibility of the three dragon fruit species to stem canker and growth inhibition of Neoscytalidium dimidiatum by chemicals. J Plant Pathol 102, 1077–1084 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1007/s42161-020-00551-0
Zhao, J., & Huang, M. (2023). Characterization and In Vitro Fungicide Sensitivity of Two Fusarium spp. Associated with Stem Rot of Dragon Fruit in Guizhou, China. Journal of fungi (Basel, Switzerland), 9(12), 1178. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9121178
Pruning Strategy
Dutra, P.S.S., Gazis R., Crane, J.H., Zhang S. (2025). Pruning as an effective strategy for the integrated management of fruit and stem canker in dragon fruit production. Crop Protection,191, 107145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2025.107145
Stem Canker Disease
Derviş, S., & Özer, G. (2023). Plant-Associated Neoscytalidium dimidiatum-Taxonomy, Host Range, Epidemiology, Virulence, and Management Strategies: A Comprehensive Review. Journal of fungi (Basel, Switzerland), 9(11), 1048. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9111048
Dy, K. S., Wonglom, P., Pornsuriya, C., & Sunpapao, A. (2022). Morphological, Molecular Identification and Pathogenicity of Neoscytalidium dimidiatum Causing Stem Canker of Hylocereus polyrhizus in Southern Thailand. Plants (Basel, Switzerland), 11(4), 504. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants11040504
EFSA Panel on Plant Health (PLH), Bragard, C., Baptista, P., Chatzivassiliou, E., Di Serio, F., Gonthier, P., Jaques Miret, J. A., Justesen, A. F., MacLeod, A., Magnusson, C. S., Milonas, P., Navas-Cortes, J. A., Parnell, S., Potting, R., Stefani, E., Thulke, H. H., Van der Werf, W., Vicent Civera, A., Yuen, J., Zappalà, L., Reignault, P. L. (2023). Pest categorisation of Neoscytalidium dimidiatum. EFSA journal. European Food Safety Authority, 21(5), e08001. https://doi.org/10.2903/j.efsa.2023.8001
Fullerton, R. A., P. A. Sutherland, R. S. Rebstock, T. H. Nguyen, N. A. T. Nguyen, T. L. Dang, T. K. T. Ngo, and V. H. Nguyen. 2018. “The Life Cycle of Dragon Fruit Canker Caused by Neoscytalidium dimidiatum and Implications for Control.” In Proceedings of Dragon Fruit Regional Network Initiation Workshop. 71–80. Taipei: FFTC. http://www.fftc.agnet.org/upload/files/activities/20180713134846/Paper_Dr_Bob_Fullerton.pdf
Hong, C. F., R. Gazis, J. H. Crane, and S. Zhang. (2019). Prevalence and Epidemics of Neoscytalidium Stem and Fruit Canker on Pitahaya (Hylocereus spp.) in South Florida.” Plant Dis. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-10-19-2158-RE.
Hong, C.-F., Zhang, S., Gazis, R., Crane, J. H., & Wasielewski, J. (2020). Stem and Fruit Canker of Dragon Fruit in South Florida: PP355, 12/2019. EDIS, 2020(1). https://doi.org/10.32473/edis-pp355-2019
Huda-Shakirah, A. R., Kee, Y. J., Wong, K. L., Zakaria, L., & Mohd, M. H. (2021). Diaporthe species causing stem gray blight of red-fleshed dragon fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus) in Malaysia. Scientific reports, 11(1), 3907. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-83551-z
Wonglom, P., Pornsuriya, C., & Sunpapao, A. (2023). A New Species of Neoscytalidium hylocereum sp. nov. Causing Canker on Red-Fleshed Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus) in Southern Thailand. Journal of fungi (Basel, Switzerland), 9(2), 197. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof9020197
Xie, L., Wang, X., Ma, X., Shen, K., Zhang, X., & Wang, X. (2025). Dynamic changes in ROS-antioxidant-metabolite network in dragon fruit infected with Neoscytalidium dimidiatum. Food chemistry: X, 30, 102957. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2025.102957
Plant Immune Response
Wang, M., Wang, Z., Ding, Y., Kang, S., Jiang, S., Yang, Z., Xie, Z., Wang, J., Wei, S., Huang, J., Li, D., Jiang, X., & Tang, H. (2024). Host-pathogen interaction between pitaya and Neoscytalidium dimidiatum reveals the mechanisms of immune response associated with defense regulators and metabolic pathways. BMC plant biology, 24(1), 4. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-023-04685-y
Human Pathogenicity
Alamri, M., Alghamdi, H., Althawadi, S., Mutabaggani, M., Dababo, M. A., Alajlan, F., Alzayer, M., Doumith, M., Alghoribi, M., & Almaghrabi, R. S. (2021). Invasive fungal infection of the brain caused by Neoscytalidium dimidiatum in a post-renal transplant patient: A case report. Medical mycology case reports, 34, 27–31. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mmcr.2021.09.001
Enriquez-Mendez, J. J., & Gonzalez, A. (2025). A Systematic Review on the Emerging Fungal Pathogen Neoscytalidium Causing Infections Worldwide. Mycopathologia, 190(4), 61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11046-025-00964-4
Garinet, S., Tourret, J., Barete, S., Arzouk, N., Meyer, I., Frances, C., Datry, A., Mazier, D., Barrou, B., & Fekkar, A. (2015). Invasive cutaneous Neoscytalidium infections in renal transplant recipients: a series of five cases. BMC infectious diseases, 15, 535. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12879-015-1241-0
Kuan, C. S., Ng, K. P., Yew, S. M., Umar Meleh, H., Seow, H. F., How, K. N., Yeo, S. K., Jee, J. M., Tan, Y. C., Yee, W. Y., Hoh, C. C., Velayuthan, R. D., Na, S. L., Masri, S. N., Chew, S. Y., & Than, L. T. L. (2023). Comparative genomic and phenotypic analyses of pathogenic fungi Neoscytalidium dimidiatum and Bipolaris papendorfii isolated from human skin scraping. Brazilian journal of microbiology : [publication of the Brazilian Society for Microbiology], 54(3), 1351–1372. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42770-023-01032-z
Qi, C., Mo, B., Jiang, C., Li, J., Bo, X., Xiao, X., Zhou, H., & Long, J. (2025). Clinical Characteristics and Treatment Outcomes of Fungal Endophthalmitis Caused by Neoscytalidium dimidiatum. Infection and drug resistance, 18, 3671–3675. https://doi.org/10.2147/IDR.S517505
Other Diseases of Dragon Fruit
Ganesan, G. S., Kumari, N., Sahu, S., Pattanaik, M., & Kishore, K. (2023). Identification of Lasiodiplodia species inciting stem rot of dragon fruit in India through polyphasic approach. 3 Biotech, 13(10), 333. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13205-023-03754-1
Hawa, M. M., Salleh, B., & Latiffah, Z. (2009). First Report of Curvularia lunata on Red-Fleshed Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus) in Malaysia. Plant disease, 93(9), 971. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-93-9-0971C
Hawa, M. M., Salleh, B., & Latiffah, Z. (2009). First Report of Curvularia lunata on Red-Fleshed Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus polyrhizus) in Malaysia. Plant disease, 93(9), 971. https://doi.org/10.1094/PDIS-93-9-0971C
Jin, X.L., Ko, Y.Z., Nordahliawate, M.S.S., Mohd, M.H. and Chiang, Y.C. (2020), First report of stem canker of dragon fruit caused by Alternaria spp. in Taiwan. New Disease Reports, 41: 35-35. https://doi.org/10.5197/j.2044-0588.2020.041.035
Zhang, S., Liu, Y., Liu, J., Li, E., & Xu, B. (2024). Characterization and Pathogenicity of Colletotrichum truncatum Causing Hylocereus undatus Anthracnose through the Changes of Cell Wall-Degrading Enzymes and Components in Fruits. Journal of fungi (Basel, Switzerland), 10(9), 652. https://doi.org/10.3390/jof10090652
Quarantine Regulations
Anonymous. (2026). Summary of Hawaii’s Import Requirements. Importation of Live Organisms into Hawaii. http://www.extento.hawaii.edu/kbase/resource/import_resource.htm Accessed March 23, 2026.
USDA (U.S. Department of Agriculture). (2020). Mailing and Shipping Food and Agricultural Products From Hawaii to the U.S. Mainland. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/sites/default/files/fs-ship-mail-from-hawaii.pdf . Accessed March 23, 2026.
PESTS OF DRAGON FRUIT
South American Cactus Moth
FDACS (Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services. 2026. Argentine Cactus Moth Biological Control. https://www.fdacs.gov/Agriculture-Industry/Pests-and-Diseases/Plant-Pests-and-Diseases/Biological-Control/Argentine-Cactus-Moth-Biological-Control Accessed Septemeber 19, 2026.
Hoshino, A. T., Androcioli, H. G., Caviglione, J. H., Auler, P. A. M., & Menezes-Junior, A. O. (2021). First Record of Cactoblastis cactorum Berg, 1885 (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Hylocereus lemairei (Hook.) Britton & Rose and H. costaricensis (F.A.C. Weber) Britton & Rose (Cactaceae) in Brazil. Brazilian journal of biology = Revista brasleira de biologia, 82, e238020. https://doi.org/10.1590/1519-6984.238020
Johnson, D.M, and P.D. Stiling. 1998. Distribution and dispersal of Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), an exotic Opuntia-feeding moth, in Florida [PDF, 392 KB] Florida Entomologist 81(1):12-22.
Rau E. 2026. 643-PEST Hotline. Invasive Report Number: T08122026165804 filed August 12, 2026. https://643pest.org/
Suckling, D. M., & Sforza, R. F. (2014). What magnitude are observed non-target impacts from weed biocontrol?. PloS one, 9(1), e84847. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0084847
Zimmermann, H., S. Bloem, and H. Klein. 2004. Biology, History, Threat, Surveillance and Control of the Cactus Moth, Cactoblastis cactorum [PDF, 1.25 MB] Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency.
GROWING ENVIRONMENTS AND PRODUCTION
Germination of Seeds
Sarwar, G., Anwar, T., Qureshi, H., Younus, M., Hassan, M. W., Sajid-Ur-Rehman, M., Khalid, F., Faiza, Zaman, W., & Soufan, W. (2024). Optimizing germination: comparative assessment of various growth media on dragon fruit germination and early growth. BMC plant biology, 24(1), 533. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12870-024-05247-6
Lighting
Chen, R., Ding, Y., Liu, W., Zhan, X., Lin, K., Lian, K., Chen, W., Wang, K., & Lin, S. (2025). Physiological effects and technical strategies of LED supplemental lighting for pitaya cultivation: a review. PeerJ, 13, e19720. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.19720
Pollination
Attar, Ş. H., Gündeşli, M. A., Urün, I., Kafkas, S., Kafkas, N. E., Ercisli, S., Ge, C., Mlcek, J., & Adamkova, A. (2022). Nutritional Analysis of Red-Purple and White-Fleshed Pitaya (Hylocereus) Species. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 27(3), 808. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27030808
Jadhav, P., Dhumal, S. S., Boraiah, K. M., Kate, P., Kakade, V. D., Basavaraj, P. S., Harisha, C. B., Halli, H. M., Kshirsagar, D. B., Patil, B. T., Pal, K. K., Ranpise, S. A., Reddy, K. S., Rane, J., & Pathak, H. (2025). Floral and pollination biology of dragon fruit reveals strategies for enhancing productivity through pollination management and reproductive window extension. Scientific reports, 15(1), 37296. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-21168-2
Tel-Zur N. (2022). Breeding an underutilized fruit crop: a long-term program for Hylocereus. Horticulture research, 9, uhac078. https://doi.org/10.1093/hr/uhac078
Quality Management
Khatun, T., Nirob, M. A. S., Bishshash, P., Akter, M., & Uddin, M. S. (2023). A comprehensive dragon fruit image dataset for detecting the maturity and quality grading of dragon fruit. Data in brief, 52, 109936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2023.109936
Paull, R.E. (2014). Dragon Fruit: Postharvest Quality-Maintenance Guidelines. Department of Tropical Plant and Soil Sciences University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu. Fruit, Nut, and Beverage Crops. May 2014. F_N-28. https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/oc/freepubs/pdf/F_N-28.pdf
Pham, T. V., Cao, T. X., Le, N. T. H., Pham, A. M., Trinh, H. T., Nguyen, D. T., Hoang, A. L. T., Bui, M. Q., Nguyen, T. N., Truong, M. N., & Hoang, T. M. (2024). Enhancing the quality and consumer satisfaction of dragon fruit beverage production: The effects of geological origin and processing conditions. Science progress, 107(4), 368504241300854. https://doi.org/10.1177/00368504241300854
Waste Utilization
Cheong, K. L., Li, J., Tang, D., Wang, M., He, Y., Liew, A., Ji, X., Zhong, H. J., Zhong, S., & Sathuvan, M. (2025). From waste to wealth: A review of emerging approaches for utilizing dragon fruit (pitaya) waste polysaccharides in value-added bioproducts. International journal of biological macromolecules, 334(Pt 1), 149051. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.149051
Jimenez-Garcia, S. N., Garcia-Mier, L., Ramirez-Gomez, X. S., Aguirre-Becerra, H., Escobar-Ortiz, A., Contreras-Medina, L. M., Garcia-Trejo, J. F., & Feregrino-Perez, A. A. (2022). Pitahaya Peel: A By-Product with Great Phytochemical Potential, Biological Activity, and Functional Application. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 27(16), 5339. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27165339
Xeric Environments
Al-Qthanin, R., Salih, A. M. M. E., Mohammed A Alhafidh, F., Almoghram, S. A. M., Alshehri, G. A., & Alahmari, N. H. (2023). Assessing the suitability of pitaya plant varieties for cultivation in the arid climate of Saudi Arabia. Heliyon, 10(1), e21651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e21651
NUTRITIONAL BENEFITS
Arivalagan, M., Karunakaran, G., Roy, T. K., Dinsha, M., Sindhu, B. C., Shilpashree, V. M., Satisha, G. C., & Shivashankara, K. S. (2021). Biochemical and nutritional characterization of dragon fruit (Hylocereus species). Food chemistry, 353, 129426. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129426
Attar, Ş. H., Gündeşli, M. A., Urün, I., Kafkas, S., Kafkas, N. E., Ercisli, S., Ge, C., Mlcek, J., & Adamkova, A. (2022). Nutritional Analysis of Red-Purple and White-Fleshed Pitaya (Hylocereus) Species. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 27(3), 808. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules27030808
Enriquez-Mendez, J. J., & Gonzalez, A. (2025). A Systematic Review on the Emerging Fungal Pathogen Neoscytalidium Causing Infections Worldwide. Mycopathologia, 190(4), 61. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11046-025-00964-4
Flores-Verastegui, M. I. M., Coe, S., Tammam, J., Almahjoubi, H., Bridle, R., Bi, S., & Thondre, P. S. (2025). Effects of Frozen Red Dragon Fruit Consumption on Metabolic Markers in Healthy Subjects and Individuals at Risk of Type 2 Diabetes. Nutrients, 17(3), 441. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17030441
Pansai, N., Detarun, P., Chinnaworn, A., Sangsupawanich, P., & Wichienchot, S. (2023). Effects of dragon fruit oligosaccharides on immunity, gut microbiome, and their metabolites in healthy adults – A randomized double-blind placebo controlled study. Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.), 167, 112657. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2023.112657
Yasmin, A., Sumi, M. J., Akter, K., Rabbi, R. H. M., Almoallim, H. S., Ansari, M. J., Hossain, A., & Imran, S. (2024). Comparative analysis of nutrient composition and antioxidant activity in three dragon fruit cultivars. PeerJ, 12, e17719. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.17719
HEALTH BENEFITS
Alhodieb F. S. (2024). Antidiabetic Potential of Hylocereus Polyrhizus and Hylocereus Megalanthus Fruit Peel: An In vitro Study. Journal of pharmacy & bioallied sciences, 16(Suppl 4), S3865–S3867. https://doi.org/10.4103/jpbs.jpbs_1289_24
Chang, Y. J., Pong, L. Y., Hassan, S. S., & Choo, W. S. (2019). Antiviral activity of betacyanins from red pitahaya (Hylocereus polyrhizus) and red spinach (Amaranthus dubius) against dengue virus type 2 (GenBank accession no. MH488959). Access microbiology, 2(1), acmi000073. https://doi.org/10.1099/acmi.0.000073
Chumroenvidhayakul, S., Thilavech, T., Abeywardena, M. Y., Conlon, M., Dallimore, J., Adams, M., Muhlhausler, B., & Adisakwattana, S. (2025). Dragon Fruit Peel (Hylocereus undatus) Modulates Hepatic Lipid Metabolism and Inflammation in a Rat Model of High-Fat, High-Fructose-Induced Metabolic Dysfunction. Antioxidants (Basel, Switzerland), 14(3), 319. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox14030319
El-Nashar, H. A. S., Al-Azzawi, M. A., Al-Kazzaz, H. H., Alghanimi, Y. K., Kocaebli, S. M., Alhmammi, M., Asad, A., Salam, T., El-Shazly, M., & Ali, M. A. M. (2024). HPLC-ESI/MS-MS metabolic profiling of white pitaya fruit and cytotoxic potential against cervical cancer: Comparative studies, synergistic effects, and molecular mechanistic approaches. Journal of pharmaceutical and biomedical analysis, 244, 116121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpba.2024.116121
Flores-Verastegui, M. I. M., Coe, S., Tammam, J., Almahjoubi, H., Bridle, R., Bi, S., & Thondre, P. S. (2025). Effects of Frozen Red Dragon Fruit Consumption on Metabolic Markers in Healthy Subjects and Individuals at Risk of Type 2 Diabetes. Nutrients, 17(3), 441. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu17030441
Joshi, M., & Prabhakar, B. (2020). Phytoconstituents and pharmaco-therapeutic benefits of pitaya: A wonder fruit. Journal of food biochemistry, 44(7), e13260. https://doi.org/10.1111/jfbc.13260
Li, G., He, Y., Liew, A., Huang, C., Song, B., Jia, X., Malairaj, S., Zhong, S., & Cheong, K. L. (2025). Dietary polysaccharides from dragon fruit pomace, a co-product of the fruit processing industry, exhibit therapeutic potential in high-fat diet-induced metabolic disorders. Food research international (Ottawa, Ont.), 203, 115818. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodres.2025.115818
Liu, K., Cheong, K. L., He, Y., Liew, A., Huang, C., Zhong, S., & Sathuvan, M. (2025). Pitaya stem polysaccharide promotes wound healing by modulating macrophage polarization via single-cell RNA sequencing evidence. International journal of biological macromolecules, 308(Pt 3), 142653. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2025.142653
Saenjum, C., Pattananandecha, T., & Nakagawa, K. (2021). Antioxidative and Anti-Inflammatory Phytochemicals and Related Stable Paramagnetic Species in Different Parts of Dragon Fruit. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 26(12), 3565. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecules26123565
Yang, Z. Y., Zheng, X. W., Jiang, W. H., Chen, G. Z., Liang, Q. Z., Xu, G. Z., & Yi, R. H. (2024). Selenicereus undatus (Dragon Fruit) Phytochemicals for Managing Three Human Pathogenic Bacteria: An In Vitro and In Silico Approach. Metabolites, 14(11), 577. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo14110577
This page was last updated on September 19, 2026.